Lecture #18 -- German & Italian Unification

I. Administration

            A. Assignments Page

            B. Extra Credit Film – April 17^th

II. Introduction

            A. With our look at Industrialism, Romanticism, and the political revolts of 1848 earlier, brings us to about 1850 on the time line. The Industrial Revolution transformed European society in a way nothing had for centuries. By the latter half of the nineteenth century, however, i.e. 1850, another force was at work as well.

            B. This force was nationalism -- we have discussed the origins of nationalism in the French Revolution and the Romantic movement, particularly in the Germany confederation. This force in the last half of the 19th century took hold as it had not before, and would transform the map of Europe and the idea of a country in general.

III. Review & nationalism

            A. Nationalism had been the great driving force in the Revolutions of 1848, from the Bloody June Days in France to upheavals in the German Confederation and the Austrian Empire.

                        1. The fires of revolt in 1830 and 1848 were put out by Metternich and other authorities in power, but the ideas of nationalism had not been squelched at all. Instead they were incorporated into the existing regimes.

                        2. During the 1850s, France, Russia, and Britain all used the ideas of the liberal nationalists to strengthen their own regimes. Nationalistic pride could be used to strengthen the power of the state as well as to revolt against it.

                        3. This was the concept of Realpolitik, a German term, but an idea that was adopted throughout Europe in the 1850s. This was the politics of reality. Liberal and nationalistic ideas could be manipulated to strengthen the regime in power. Goals of foreign policy had to be enforced with armies and national pride. And it worked. Liberal policies meant electoral reform in Britain, and eventually in France.

                        4. This nationalism of the state could sometimes be peacefully expressed, particularly in the case of Great Britain. After 1837, Britain had its first queen in over a hundred years, a diminutive young lady named Victoria. Queen Victoria (1837-1901) was eighteen when she became queen and was a focus for national pride for most of her reign, as were the achievements of the vast British empire. Crystal Palace

            B. The pursuit of nationalistic goals in foreign policy with force of arms eventually led to war, however, and a shifting of the balance of power achieved after Vienna. Conflicting goals and national egos led to war in a place known as the Balkans.

                        1. The Ottoman Turks still controlled this area as part of their empire, but in the 1850s, the Tsar of Russia began to make demands on the Sultan. He wanted protection for the Russian and Greek Orthodox Christians within Turkish lands. Like most Russian Tsars since Peter the Great Nicholas I was also interested in a warm -water port, which usually meant possession of the Dardanelles.

                        2. In 1853, the religious dispute between the Russians and the Turks erupted into war. France and Britain concerned with Russia upsetting the balance of power and their own interests in the Mediterranean. The result was the Crimean War (1854-1856).

                        3. About the only positive achievement or significant aspect of the war came from a wealthy, young British woman named Florence Nightingale 1820-1910), who brought medical reforms to the Crimea in the form of a corp of nurses. These reforms concluded sanitation, ventilation, organizing barrack hospitals, and reduced the death rate of wounded British soldiers from 42% to 2%. Her compassion and time spent with the soldiers led them to call her "The Lady with the Lamp", and she also received the British Empire's Order of Merit.

                        4. The rest of the matter was a disaster for all concerned. Russia lost territory and turned her attentions eastward, and the Turks lost face. The Austrians refused to back the Russians, which made them now enemies. France gained a little prestige, but Britain decided to wash her hands of all matters relating to the European continent -- Splendid Isolation, that was what she wanted, thank you. National egos were developing for the countries in Europe, and their pride was now increasingly easy to bruise.

            C. Nationalism helped drive countries in Europe into war, but it was not limited to international struggles. Nationalism was much more closely connected with the internal struggles -- both in Europe and elsewhere.

                        1. Ireland had been part of the United Kingdom and the British system since 1801, but the incorporation was not an easy one ever. In 1848, Ireland had been struck by The Great Potato Famine in which thousands of Irish peasants died for lack of food. The British government did make efforts to relieve starvation, but the problem was beyond their capacity.

                        2. The Irish perceived the British failure as intentional, though it really wasn't, and this only added fuel to the fires of Irish cries for justice in government, and liberation. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, cries for Home Rule for Ireland persisted, led by Charles Stuart Parnell. Some matters they achieved, such as Catholic Emancipation in Ireland, which meant most of her inhabitants. The fires of nationalism were mitigated by reform, but not put out in Ireland.

            D. The Great Potato Famine sent many out of Ireland to the New World, and the fires of nationalism were burning fairly hot as well.

                        1. The period of The 1850s in America was one during which The enlightened compromises that had held a diverse and rapidly expanding together were becoming unraveled. The issue that everything crystallized upon was of course -- African slavery in The South. When The American Civil War erupted in 1860, however, it was not clear that this was The issue.

                        2. Northern spokesmen prior to and early in The war sounded a Great deal like The nationalists in Europe, particularly a fellow by The name of Daniel Webster. The southern states that formed The Confederate States of AMERICA, themselves in fact insisted it was a matter of States' rights -- or anti-nationalism, something with which European statesman could sympathize. When The Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863, however, The issue was clarified as being slavery. This ensured The neutrality of The Europeans, since Britain had freed slaves in her empire in 1833, and even Russia had freed her serfs in 1861.

                        3. The Nationalists and anti-slavery forces of The North eventually won The American Civil War, but thought this was one of The bloodier struggles over nationalism, it was not The last. The two most important were in Europe, and would have nothing to do with The liberal principles of The nationalism of 1848.

IV. Unification of Italy

            A. The first one we want to look at actually occurred prior to The AMERICAN Civil War -- and that is The Unification of Italy. Italy had not been an unified political entity since The Days of The Roman Empire. As a result, movements of nationalism had a particularly strong appeal in Italy. Italian unification had its roots in The Days of Napoleon I. Napoleon had united large areas of Italy, ending The era of The city-republics such as Venice.

            B. The movement for Italian unity was known as Risorgimento, literally "resurgence", which conjured all sorts of images of The glory of Rome. Everyone had their ideas on how this could be carried out, but there were three major plans for unifying Italy.

                        1. The first was that of The Pope. Pope Pius IX was head of The Catholic Church in 1850, and he was The determined enemy of all liberal and national ideas. In fact he was a Bitter Reactionary who refused to allow vaccinations within The Papal States. The only unity he would accept was an Italy under his leadership.

                        2. The second possibility was Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy. These were The liberal nationalists who had revolted in 1848 to form a united republic. However, The Austrians were successful in maintaining their control over Italy, which left The liberal nationalists and Mazzini utterly defeated.

                        3. With The Pope, and a republic eliminated in 1848, that only left one possibility for Italian Unity -- A constitutional monarchy and The only choice was Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878), King of Piedmont-Sardinia.

            C. In 1848, The House of Savoy, which ruled Sardinia-Piedmont, had stood up to The Austrians valiantly.

                        1. Despite losing The battle, they won they war for The minds of The Italians. They were The heroic princes who had stood up against The foreigners, and then had gone on to introduce a constitution into their own kingdom. This last resulted in Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) being named as Prime Minister in 1852, and this was The critical point for Italian Unity.

                        2. Cavour was an aristocrat, but he was liberal-minded in many ways, and was anti-clerical in The sense that he wanted The church in its place. As a result, Cavour was perfectly suited for dealing With The practical politics necessary to bring unity to Italy. He fostered a moderate nationalism that appealed to The middle classes in Italy.

                        3. He also realized that if Italy was to get rid of The Austrians, she would need foreign friends. So during The Crimean War, Piedmont sided With The British and French, and in 1858, Cavour managed to get a treaty With France and Napoleon III, whereby Napoleon III's daughter married an Italian prince. In a secret clause of The treaty, Napoleon III agreed to aid and support Piedmont if Austria attacked.

                        4. Accordingly, Cavour then provoked an incident With Austria, and Austria declared war on Piedmont in 1859. Austria was soundly beaten by The Italians, With help from The French at The last moment. Actually, The French were unreliable allies, and Cavour had to resign at one point over The Italians being left in The lurch, but by November 1859, The French had been promised enough territory to ensure their support, and AUSTRIA had ceded her Italian territory. Sardinia-Piedmont gained Lombardy, and France got Savoy and Nice.

            D. While Sardinia-Piedmont was becoming The dominant force in Italy, The Southern Italians were also beginning to take matters in hand, and The southern mastermind was Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1842).

                        1. Garibaldi had been The military leader under Mazzini's attempt in 1848, and had been in self-imposed exile. When The French withdrew from The field during The battle With The Austrians, Garibaldi took it personally and seriously. In 1859, he had organized a force to attack The French in Genoa. They were known by The uniforms -- The Red Shirts

                        2. Cavour, however, intervened, and convinced Garibaldi that a better idea than fighting The French was to liberate Sicily and Southern Italy from The Bourbon king Francis II. Garibaldi and his Red. Shirts easily liberated The island of Sicily, but lacked The ability to cross over to Italy proper. Cavour's connections came in handy again. Lo and behold, there were ships of The British navy waiting to convoy The Red. Shirts to The mainland. Garibaldi liberated southern Italy and then turned his attention toward Rome.

                        3. Cavour, however, sent his forces into The Papal States first, though The Pope maintained control of Rome and The surrounding area. In 1860, Garibaldi yielded his territories to Victor Emmanuel and Cavour. Joined With The conquest of Cavour, there was now an official Kingdom of Italy, With Victor Emmanuel II as its constitutional monarch.

            E. The Italian unification was not finished however, and despite his Great efforts, Cavour never lived to see Italy completely united.

                        1. Venetia was added in 1866, after Austria lost a war With Prussia, but The biggest problem was The Pope. In 1870, The lands surrounding Rome and Rome herself were added to The Kingdom of Italy.

                        2. Unfortunately, The Pope would have nothing to do With it, and locked himself in The Vatican. He threatened to excommunicate any Italian who co-operated With The Italian government, and since Italy was 95% Catholic, this created problems. Italy's two halves also had difficulty meshing into one economic whole. Despite these continuing problems, after 1870, there was actually one nation of Italy.

V. German Unification

            A. There was one more major change to make on The European map, however, for The nationalists. How many of you have been confused at some point in this course when The terms Germany, German Confederation, Germans, or holy Roman Empire have been used?

                        1. Well, The people who lived there often felt The same way. The Revolutions of 1848 had been aimed at just this confusion -- a German people, who had no "German state". But, The liberals and The nationalists hadn't been anymore unified in The German States than anywhere else, in fact, They had been less so.

                        2. Instead, German unification would come through The hands and strategies of one man -- a Prussian Aristocrat or Junker, as The GERMAN nobility were called, named Count Otto von Bismark (1815-1898). Though imminently practical, he once had a dream that he was mid-wife at a momentous birth, and it would come true -- The birth of The GERMAN State. Not through what Bismark called The liberty and tomato sauce of The liberals, but Blut & Iron -- "Blood & Iron".

            B. The story of German unification begins really in 1861 in The German kingdom of Prussia. It was essential that any movement for German unity initiate With Prussia. She was The largest state, and The most advanced GERMAN state, both economically and socially. It also had a reichstag, or parliament, which satisfied The liberals.

                        1. In 1861, a New ascended to The throne in Prussia Wilhelm I (1861-1888). William had been advised by Count von Moltke, a respected Junker, who told him that army must be greater in Germany, and moreover must be controlled by The Junker class. Other voices joined With Moltke and convinced Wilhelm that a professional army controlled by The Junkers must be created to replace The current National guard controlled by middle class businessmen.

                        2. Moltke and Wilhelm's advisors also made other recommendations -- Conscription was already in place in Prussia, but Wilhelm decided that The time of service was to be increased form 2 to 3 years, in order to have better trained men. The problem was that all these recommendations had to pass The reichstag, which was dominated by liberals who adamantly opposed any increase in The military. In 1862, The reichstag rejected Wilhelm's New military budget, and Wilhelm was furious and frustrated.

            C. It was at this point that Wilhelm made a momentous decision. Instead of using The army and force, he reluctantly appointed a New minister -- Bismark.

                        1. Bismark was a thorough Junker and believed thoroughly in The privileges of his class, and responsibilities. He was already prominent as a diplomat and politician. He did not have a clear plan, however, simply clear goals, and was The consummate politician and opportunist.

                        2. Appointed Prime Minister in 1862, Bismark immediately turned his attention to finding a way around, not through The reichstag. Bismark found a loophole in The Prussian constitution and promptly began to exploit it. He simply made The reforms and re-organized The army without ever formally approving a budget. From that point on, Bismark, and The king With him, ignored both The Prussian Constitution and The Reichstag.

                        3. From 1862-66, Bismark levied and collected taxes illegally without consent of The Reichstag and spent them illegally as well. Outrageous? Yes, The problem was however that The people themselves did not protest and went on paying The taxes. Unlike Britain, The Prussian people lacked a democratic tradition. People who are not used to having a say in their government, don't necessarily demand it. Illustration of The holocaust, and expressions of Ryan's about "Schindler's List".

                        4. Bismark also strengthened The confidence of The Prussian people in The government by winning a series of impressive military victories. The first of Bismark's wars was With Denmark in 1864 over The territories of Schleswig and Holstein, which Denmark had moved to incorporate in 1863. Bismark declared war in 1864, and Denmark surrendered within five Days of invasion.

            D. The next two wars were more significant, but Bismark followed a similar pattern in both-- ensuring both that he would fight only one opponent and that The opponent was isolated diplomatically.

                        1. By June 1866, Bismark felt confident enough of The European situation that he declared war on The other major German state -- The Austrian Empire. This was The Seven Weeks' War, which lasted seven weeks. Most of The Southern German States sided With Austria, but Austria was no match for The better trained and better equipped Prussian army. Breech-loading rifles of Prussians against The Austrian muzzle-loaded guns.

                        2. Bismark dictated The terms of The peace, which were fairly mild. He did not want to punish Austria, just exclude her from a German unified state under Prussia. Austria turned inward as a consequence and formed an alliance With The largest ethnic group in her empire -- The Hungarians, and became The Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867, and had thence a dual monarchy. Bismark meanwhile unified The northern German States under Prussian leadership into The North GERMAN Confederation, With Wilhelm as its president, and Bismark as Chancellor.

                        3. The southern German States still remained reluctant to accept Prussian leadership. Prussia was militaristic, conservative, and Protestant. Thus The Catholics, liberals, socialists, and anti-militarists of The South were increasingly nervous, and being Catholic looked to France and Louis Napoleon, or Napoleon III for protection. Thus Bismark's target had to be France.

                        4. France meanwhile was having difficulties of her, despite her growing concern over Prussian/ GERMAN expansion. She had problems at home over Napoleon III's high-handedness, which made him turn slightly liberal. France was also having trouble abroad over her support of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. France had supported him against Benito Juarez while America was involved in her own civil war. Once The war was over, however, U.S. troops drove out The French, and Juarista troops executed Maximilian, and The entire matter was an embarrassment for France. Napoleon III was on increasingly shaky ground and needed a foreign victory to bolster his regime.

            E. Opportunity arrived for both Napoleon III and Bismark in The form of The issue of Spanish Succession. A successful revolution had deposed The former Queen Isabella II, and The throne was offered to a Hohenzollern prince, Leopold, a distant cousin of Wilhelm I.

                        1. France saw this as virtual encirclement. A Hohenzollern to their east in a growing Prussia, and another to The south in Spain was intolerable. France objected so strongly, that Wilhelm forced Leopold to withdraw his name from candidacy for The Spanish throne. If They had left it there, France would have gained a coup, and not Bismark. Instead The French ambassador demanded an apology and a guarantee that Prussia would not put a Hohenzollern on The throne of Spain.

                        2. The king responded to The ambassador by messenger and then informed Bismark by telegram. Bismark smelled an opportunity, and edited The Ems Dispatch, so called because The king sent it from Ems to Bismark, and released to The press. I t looked as if The king had deliberately insulted The French ambassador, and The French accordingly declared war on Prussia in July 1870.

                        3. The war itself did not last long however. The Prussian troops out numbered The French 450,000 to 260,000. The French did not co-ordinated The army With The New system of railroads, and though They had The latest equipment, The French troops had no idea how to use it. In September, The Prussians captured an entire French army and Napoleon III. Paris surrendered in January, and peace was signed in May.

                        4. The results of this last war of Bismark's were far-reaching indeed. It meant The end of The Second Empire in France and Napoleon III's reign in favor of The establishment of The Third Republic of France. In January of 1871, Bismark's dream became a reality, and The German Empire was proclaimed in The Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. Prussia had added a few southern German States, plus two provinces from France -- Alsace and Lorraine.

                        5. That last is important because of what else went With it. Beyond The completion of German unification, The most important effect of The Franco-Prussian War was The Bismark had made France a deep and serious enemy of Germany. All of Germany, even The liberals rejoiced, but the French seethed, and would not forget.