Lecture # 16 -- Industrial Revolution
I. Introduction
A. The nineteenth century was one of tremendous change, with a vairety of intellectual and cultrual movements that spread throughout Europe. The changes in Europe that were to come were almost miniscule in comparison with the changes were are going to discuss today and after the break. That change was the Industrial REvolution that began in the late eighteenth century and during the 19th transformed all of Europe.
B. In 1700 in Europe and the rest of the world, life was very much the same as it had been for thousands of years. The last revolution in how people's lives were structured had been with the Agricultural Revolution in 10,000 BC. There had been changes in culture, politics, fashion, and social structure somehwat. But the daily lives and methods of the majority of the European population had not changed.
II. Pre-Industrial Europe
A. So what was life like in Europe in 1700?
1. We have already discussed the intellectual and cultural movements, but most of the population of Europe were still peasant and far removed from the changes of the Enlightenment. They still held to the old tales, like the folk tales we have mentioned and the belief in witches. Life varied from country to country, but there were certain given characteristics for all of pre-Industrial Europe.
2. First of it was Rural, which made sense since most of the population was still engaged in farming. These rural farming areas were isolated from the cities that existed such as Paris, Vienna, London. Peasants were also isolated from each other. TRavel was by foot and more than a day's journey was out of the question, and even that was not undertaken lightly.
3. Pre-Industrial society was agricultural as I already pointed out. The majority of the population (about 85%) had to be engaged in farming to support the other 15% of the population who ruled. This meant a hard life for many. Farming, and other agricultural labor was hard work and it was a hard life. Mortality rates were high, especially early in life. Yet, it was also a varied life. There was a natural rhythm to life, one that co-incided with nature -- morning & evening, seasons, and work corresponded to these changes.
4. Pre-industrial society was communal. Those of you who have had the first half of western civ will remember how important the community was to the medieval society. The community acted together -- from barn-raising to quilting projects. Community action was essential for survival. Harvests, threshing, planting all of these were community acctivities. There was interaction and support between members of the community.
5. Pre-industrial society was also hierarchial. There was a strucutre to everything. A Rhythm o life based upon nature and religion. There was a structure to society. Everyone knew his place and stayed in it.
6. Usually this meant that the system was patriarchial. The father was the head of the family and his job was as protector and provider. In a society where life was uncertain, these were important roles and the dominant ones. Yet, don't necesarily believe that women were powerless. They were just as important to the survival of the community -- in their roles, in the field, in the home, and as mother and wife. The role was different and less vocal.
B. There were gradual changes in technological and in social roles, but in 1700 most things were essential the same. Around 1750, however, the gradual changes and shifting reached a critical point, and a major change began to occur. Over time and generations, European and all western society and eventually the rest of the world was transformed.
1. Industrial society was noticeably different from its predecessor. It was and is first of all URBAN. Life became centered not in the countryside, but in the towns, and eventually the cities.
2. It is aloso of course Industrial. THis meant constant mechanized rhythm. The rhythm was not that of the body and nature but that of the machine. William Blake lamented this as "the dark, satanic mills" which lacked natural rhythm. Just as WIlliam Wordsworth in "The WOrld is Too Much With US".
3. Industrial society also became FRAGMENTED. Individuals existed in small apartments, often without extended family. Generations of families did not live within the same walls or on the same property and in the same place for time immemorial.
4. Life was still hierarchial, and patriarchal, however, but those changes would grow eventually out of the fragmentation and changing rhythms of life.
C. Life woud change with the Industrial revolution and so would nations. In 1700, Great BRitain was a second-rate island power. The Industrial REvolution, however, began there in 1750 and by 1800, Britain was on her way to being the wealthiest and most powerful nation in not just Europe, but in the world. By 1850 she was.
III. Great Britain & Industrialization
A. Since the transformation begins in BRitain, that is where we are going to focus. Why Britain? Why does this revolution of life, work and society begin there? Well there are a number of Reasons.
B. Life in Great BRitain in 1750, prior to Industrialization was no picnic. It had its own set of problems -- economic, social and political. Yet, there were certain conditions that made her different from the rest of EUrope.
1. First, Britain had a Non-coercive Government. Now what does that mean? It meant that BRitish government didn't interfere in the everyday lives of people for the most part. The better off one was, the more the government left one alone. There was interference if you were poor and with no connections. Then one could be "impressed" into the navy -- i.e. shanghaied into the Navy -- where do think the term came from. This same iddea caused problems between the AMerican colonies and Britain.
2. Yet, if you had property, the government did not tell you what to do with it. There was no zoning. Just as Locke had emphasised -- property was one of the most important rights -- and there was not a more important one to the British. And property rights meant you did with it as you pleased, unlike the restrictions in France.
C. BRitain also the advantage of being internally stable. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688/89 and the union with Scotland in the early 18th century, Britain was stable politically.
1. Despite a monarch who might or might not be competent, Britain's system of government meant that she had a way to deal with internal disputes that did not disrupt the entire political process. Moreover her economic status was also good. There was not a large disgruntled class either socially or politically.
2. The aristocracy in Britain was open and one could move up the social ladder. Moreover, the nobility also had a say in the government, and more than that they paid their share of the taxes. In fact, one of the higher taxes was the income tax which was onyl paid by the wealthy. There were channels for the aristocracy's interest, and nolimits on what they could not do with their money. Concept of Absolute Property.
3. BRitain was also secure externally. She had an geographic advantage in beina an island because unlike the nations on the European continent, Britain was rarely involved in border squabbles. The troubles between England and Scotland were settled in the first half of the 18th century, and as for the rest -- she was an island. She chose whether or no to be involved -- and usually it was not. Her fleet insured that she was safe from attack as well.
4. Britain also had another condition that made it ameniable to changes in industry and economics. There were no internal tolls in Britain -- at all. From England to Scotland to Wales, there was internal free trade, which was of course an incentive to trade and economice activity.
5. Britain's trade was not limited to only her island, however. She was also a Global trader with a large naval force by the middle of the 18th century. With the TReaty of Utrecht in 1713, Britain gained ports in the New World, and islands in the Mediterranean and Carribean, as well as the right of asiento. Asiento was the exclusive monopoly to the African slave trade in the new world. Britain had the overseas connections to distribute goods, as well as the income that generated.
6. Britain's overseas trade also meant another favorable circumstance was created that helped pave the way for the industrial revolution -- Capital Accumulation. Trade brought in money, and Britain had stable financial community in London, as well as the heart of world finances. The Bank of England meant that the government was stable financially, as well.
D. These were the economic and political conditions that helped set Britain up for the industrial changes to come. Yet there were also other considerations, ecological and technological.
1. During the early 18th century, major strides were made in agricultural production. Agricultural improvements had begun a century earlier, and by 1750, the changes had affected the average person. THese included abandoned leaving one field fallow in favor planting crops with nitrogen-rich roots which replenished the soil. The amount of food per worker increased dramatically, allowing for better health of worker and for the livestock.
2. An increased amount of grain also meant that the amounts of livestock that was also receiving grain in the winter, and largr herds could be kept year round. This led in England to what is known as the Enclosure Movement. In the preivous system, livestock had grazed in the common land that all used. But in the early 18th century, these common fields were divided up proportionally among the landowners to accomodate ever-increasing herds. This put more and more land in fewer hands, and despite protest the ENclosure acts went through, because they benefitteed those with property.
3. England had other advantages in her geological make-up. In other words, She had the Natural Resources necessary to support the industrial changes to come. She had and still has many enormous coal deposits, which provided the source of fuel. But one also has to have the resources not only to power machines, but also to build them. Britain had that as well in tremendous iron deposits. Just as importantly, ENgland had the advantage of being an island -- a fairly small one. THere is no place in BRitain that is more than about 70 miles from access to the sea. She had the rivers and access to water necessary for both power and transportation.
4. In addition, she had an increasing population as well. It was rising fast, but not so fast that it outdistanced foood producition. Britain in 1700 had a population of 5½ million people, but in 1800 she had 9 million. In 1700, she couldn't have fed that many, but she could in 1800. Part of the reason for the increase in poopulation was probably a better diet, besides improvements in medical care and the lowering of the average age of marriage. THe diet during the eighteenth century became more diverse and healthier -- increased amounts of food. The potato was also introduced into England and the rest of the Britain in the 16th century. The potato was significant because it could be grown efficiently and feed a great number. In 1½ acres, a family could grow enough to feed 6 adults for a year, which meant that in some areas, particularly in Ireland, the average adult ate 10 lbs of potatoes a day, mixed with milk and some grain it made a healthy diet.
IV. Social Causes of Industrialization
A. These were the economical, political, geographic, ecological and demographic causes of BRitain being the first to industrialize, but there were also social causes essential to the Industrial REvolution beginning in England. What do I mean by social causes? I mean that there were certain features of society in England that were unique and made uniquely suited to house the Industrial Revolution.
B. The first of these social causes or characteristics I referred to slightly --LAND. The English treasured no right dearer than property.
1.They had a peculiar concept of Absolute Private Property. This meant that if you owned the land -- then no one could tell you what to or not to do with it. The owner held all rights to any minerals found on his land, as well as the water running through it.
2. If he wanted to build, there were no restrictions on the land, and there were also no restriction on what those certain classes could and couldn't do. The aristocratic owner could engage in whatever business activity struck his fancy -- from mining to millinery to distillery, a favorite in Scotland.
3. If the owner and the land were free to do as they pleased, so were the lower classes, which is in essence the second social cause LABOR. The population increase meant that there was a sufficient amount of people to make up a work force in factories. More than that the rural population was free to move to the towns inf they chose to do so. They were not bound to the land as they were in some places in Eastern Europe. They were also willing to move and to work long hours for the motivation of money.
4. Which brings us to the third social cause -- CAPITAL. To start a business or an enterprise one needs money. Britain's position as a financial leader meant that the capital was there. Moreover there was a considerable commerical class willing to invest in new things, and low interest rates made investing and getting capital easier. Thus Britain had the resources, the freedom, tthe labour, and the money to start and to pay the people with.
C. There was also one other important social factor in all of this -- CONSUMER DEMAND.
1. WHat do I mean by this? Every society has consumer demand, right? So why is this a social cause in England? WEll, it is perhaps better understood as the principle of "keeping up with the Joneses". In England, there were no sumptuary laws regulating who could wear or own what. You could own and wear whatever you could afford.
2. The best example is probably the work of a fellow by the name of Josiah Wedgewood. Now, many of may be familiar with Wedgewood China -- exclusive and some of the finest in the world -- right? He made expensive pieces such as this. But that, is not how he started out. He started out by making plain form of earthen dinnerware. Something like this -- except grayer. But he called it "queensware". Now how does this relate to consumer demand? Well, it meant that when Mrs. Jones Got some dinnerware, Mrs. Brown down the street demanded of her husband "Why don't we have plates to eat off of? Mrs. Jones does. And Lizbeth Jones is no better than I am!" Mr. Brown agrees and they purchase dinner ware. Wedgwood was a smart man -- his queensware was simple, cheap, and sturdy and he produced on a mass scale. Everyone soon owned queensware, simply because there were no restirctions on them not doing so.
3. And then of course, Mrs. Jones soon got some with flowers and cups. Then Mrs. Brown had to have them as well. This was true with all the new innovations that would come, and it wasn't just one Mrs. Brown but Several thousand Mrs. Browns. This wasn't limited to just dinnerware, of course, either. It happened with everything, but let's look at one of the first examples of where industrial revolution began to make these factors important.
V. The Textile Industry
A. The industrial revolution in Britain was basically the mechanization of industries and occupations that had been done previously by hand. The first innovations and changes came in an area where Britain was already ahead of the rest of Europe -- the textile industry.
1. Prior to the industrial revolution, textiles in Britain operated with the Cottage Industry. This meant that people worked in their own homes, or cottages, to produce the goods. Now how could one family produce enough cloth to make a profit. Simple, they couldn't.
2. SO, a the Putting-out system was developed. This meant that owner of the business "put out" the work. The Owner/ Manufacturer first got the cotton. He took it first to one cottage -- here the carding of the fibers was done -- or making it smooth. He then picked up their product and took it to another cottage, in which the family there spun the fiber into thread. Then the thread was taken to another cottage where it woven into cloth. Then it went to market, and the owner started his journey all over again.
3. All of this work was of course done with hand powered tools, form the spinning wheel cranked by the lady and her daughters to the carding tools to the loom which wove the cloth.
B. During the early part of the 18th century, new inventions began to speed up the process and make it more and more efficient.
1. The first of these was the Flying Shuttle, invented by John Kay (1704-64) in the 1733. What this did was to speed up the weaving process. It allowed there to be only one weaver operating a loom by a series of hammers and counterweights operated by footpedals, instead of two who had to pass the shuttle back and forth. The problem was now the short supply of thread for the loom.
2. The problem was conquered in 1767 by James Hargreaves (d.1778) who invented the Spinning Jenny. This was a wooden frame containing a number of spindles around which thread was spun by turning a crank. The first ones had eight spindles, and later models had up to one hundred. These jennies rapidly replaced the spinning wheels, but the threads produced weren't quite as strong.
3. This problem led to the next innovation two years later by Richard Arkwright -- The water frame. The water frame was a series of water-driven rollers that stretched the cotton before spinning, which made the thread stronger. About ten years later, a man named Samuel Crompton (1753-1827) saw the possibility for another innovation -- combining the jenny and the water frame into one machine -- The Spinning Mule.
C. With these innovations also came on another that was essential -- from the mind of Richard Arkwright.
1. When I say industry today, what do you think of? You think of big buildings -- of factories. But those I haven't mentioned as of yet. That's because that was an innovation of Arkwright's. Arkwright's focus in manufacturing were stockings -- an item of fashion for both men and women.
2. Arkwright's biggest concern was secrecy. His machines were getting big and he need to house them indoors so that no one could steal his invention. Arkwright established his first factory near Nottingham in 1769. The buildings were big and enclosed, to be "safe boxes" for his inventions. Arkwright and other inventors took out patents and engaged in lawsuits to protect their secrets. Workers were sworn to secrecy about techniques and the machinery. Industrial espionage is nothing new.
3. Yet, the factory system itself soon caught on, for reasons beyond secrecy. Why leave all of these jobs in separate places? The work was more mechanized now, and instead of travelling from place to place, the goods could be produced in one location -- one FActory. Labor was brought to a central location. The people came to the manfucaturing site. These factories were built near water for easy transportation of the goods and for power for the new inventions.
4. Arkwright's genius of management, though he refused to respond to new innovations made him a wealthy man. He started out as a travelling wig salesman, but he died with a fortune of over £500,000.
D. The factory system was not the last of the innovations, for the cottage system was still prospering because the machines still ran by hand, but this would soon change.
1. In 1787, Edmund Cartwright invented the first power loom, powered by water which allowed weaving to catch up with the spinning. It was fairly inefficient, however, and the cottage industry persisted until the 1820s. Another boon to British textiles soon arrived, however, from America from a fellow named ELi Whitney, the inventor of the Cotton Gin. The Cotton Gin made the cotton grown in the American south a profitable commodity. Before it had too many seeds, and took to long to card. This boosted British production, but also revitalized the insitution of slavery in the AMerican South, which had been on its way out economically.
2. When Richard Roberts invented an Efficient Power Loom than ran on one the most important elements of the industrial revolution -- steam power. The number of power looms went from 2,400 in 1813 to 250,000 in 1850. By 1830, 28,000 adult women and 20,000 adult men were operating nearly 50,000 power looms throughout Great Britain.
3. James Henry Hammond said it best "Cotton is King!", and indeed she was the king of manufactured goods, and of American exports. In 1750, Britain imported less than 5 million pounds of cotton; by 1850 it was 588 million pounds. Cotton madeup over 40% of British exports, and by 1850 over half a million earned their living from cotton -- in Britain alone.
4. Not everyone was happy though, the mechanization put many out of work. In fact, the power loom helped make hand loom weaver the first large scale groups of technologically unemployed workers. Organised opposition developed with the foundin of the Luddites in the 1810s. This group wanted to maintain independent labor and part of this process were organised attacks on the machines to smash them. Industrial violence.
E. One of the most important inventions of the era was in the 1770 because it was then that a Scootish Engineer named James Watt (1736-1819) developed a new type of engine powered by steam.
1. Watt was asked to repair a Newcomen engine, which had been developed in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. It was powered by a steam pump, and was usually called an atmospheric engine. It was extremely inefficient, though was better than using horses.
2. Instead of repairing though, Watt refined the steam engine. He added a separate condenser and a steam pump which mad the first true and efficient steam engine. This steam engine would transform how steel was made, transportation, and combined with the factory system developed in textiles and spread it to all types of manufacturing.