Possible Paper Topics
Early baptismal
practices
Formation of NT
canon
Ante-Nicene
Christology
Gnosticism
The emperor
Constantine
The doctrine of
apostolic succession
Jewish life in
the Middle Ages
The role of
creeds in Christianity
Early missions
The Great
Persecution under Diocletian
The effect of
persecution on early Christian growth
Why Roman
church became preeminent
The effect of
heresy on Christianity
Development of
the doctrine of transubstantiation
The
contributions of Pope Innocent III
Mendicant
orders
[Other papers
on events, thinkers, or doctrines are welcome]
Who’s Who (and What’s
What) Reading Guide
Subapostolic age
Ebionites
Apostolic
fathers (chart, p. 50)
Apocryphal
literature
Domitian
Pliny
Trajan
Apologists
(chart, p. 71)
Polycarp
Marcion
Simon Magus
Valentinus
Montanus
Tertullian
Irenaeus
Apostolic
succession
Rule of faith
Canon
Old Catholic
fathers (chart, p. 124)
Patripassianism
Paul of Samosata
Sabellius
Baptismal rite
Infant baptism
Assemblies
Eucharist
Decius
Cyprian
Novatian
Mani
Dionysius of
Dionysius of
Methodius
Lactantius
Chart, p. 179
Eusebius of
Donatists
Arius
Alexander
Council of
Eusebius of
Chart, p. 201
Athanasius
Julian the
Apostate
Hilary of
Council of
Nicene/Post-Nicene
fathers (chart, p. 213)
Monasticism
Anthony
Missionary
expansion
Theodosius I
Chart, p. 255
Diodore
Theodore of Mopsuestia
Apollinaris
Nestorius
Cyril of
Council of
Council of
Pelagius
Julian of Eclanum
John Cassian
Vincent of Lerins
Alaric
Attila the Hun
Vandals
Visigoths
Isidore of
Franks
Ostrogoths
Boethius
Prosper of
Leo the Great
Pseudo-Dionysius
the Areopagite
Justinian
Council of
Benedict of Nursia
Gregory the
Great
Maximus the
Confessor
Council of
John of
Council of
Patrick
Augustine of
Venerable Bede
Charles Martel
Pippin (Pepin)
the Short
Charlemagne
Alcuin
Paschasius Radbertus
Ratramnus
Gottschalk
Rabanus Maurus
John Scotus Eriugena
Gerbert (Sylvester II)
Wenceslas
Otto I
Hildebrand
(Gregory VII)
Chart, p. 403
Henry IV
Urban II
Richard I the Lionheart
Chart, p. 420
Chart, p. 426
Anselm of
Gaunilo
Peter Abelard
Heloise
Scholastics,
(chart, p. 438)
Bernard of Clairvaux
Thomas Becket
Hildegard of Bingen
Moses
Maimonides
Avicenna
Averroës
Innocent III
Council of
Lateran IV, 1215
Dominic
Francis of
Bonaventure
Albert the
Great
Aristotle
John Duns Scotus
Peter Waldo
(Valdes)
Cathari/Albigenses
Joachim of
Fiore
Dante
Boniface VIII
GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY
Introductory Lecture
Keith Stanglin
-“Tradition”
-What is the point of the Christmas illustration?
-How have the figures and events of church history
shaped the present-day church?
-What is the problem with saying, “We are going back to
the Bible only, rejecting all ‘traditions’”?
-Why study church history?
1. Gives us .
2. Gives us and .
3. Can be useful in shaping proper Christian .
4. Value for .
5. Strengthens our .
Backgrounds of Christianity
4 WORLD EMPIRES
(with approximate dates) (cf. Dan. 2):
1. (612-539 B.C.)
2. (539-330 B.C.)
3. (330-63 B.C.)
4. (63 B.C.-A.D. 476)
GREEK EMPIRE
(Hellenistic Period)
-Alexander the
Great conquers the known world and spreads Greek culture as he goes. His
empire divided among four generals.
-Translation of
Septuagint (LXX), the Greek version of the OT.
-Hellenization of
Jews.
PERIOD OF THE
MACCABEES
-Maccabean revolt
(167 B.C.) against hellenization process.
ROMAN EMPIRE
-Pompey takes
-Julius Caesar
-Augustus
-Herod the Great
-Josephus
FALL OF
The Jewish revolt
began in A.D. 66,
CIRCUMSTANCES
FAVORABLE TO CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE:
1. Pax Romana (Roman ) 4.
Common - Koine
Greek (300 BC-AD 300)
2. Common 5.
Widespread disinterest in traditional
3. Ease of to the empire 6.
Widespread influence of culture
Major Persecutions of Christians by the
Romans
1. Nero (r. 54-68)
When
2. Domitian (r. 81-96)
The
refusal of Christians to offer incense to the emperor was the main reason for
the persecution.
3. Trajan (r. 98-117)
Christians
were not sought out. Don’t
ask, don’t tell (Bettenson 3-5).
4. Hadrian (r. 117-38)
Policies
of Trajan were enforced.
5. Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-80) (after his death
begins the decline of the Empire)
Justin
suffered under him.
6. Septimius Severus
(r. 193-211)
Issued
an edict in 202 forbidding conversion to Christianity.
7. Decius (r. 249-51)
His
was the first empire-wide persecution (Bettenson 14).
8. Valerian (r. 253-60)
Christian
property was confiscated.
9. Diocletian (r. 284-305)
The most severe persecution of all.
10. Galerius (r. 305-11)
Continued the persecutions in the east.
“The
blood of Christians is seed” (Tertullian, Apology
50).
Persecutions had the positive effect of
separating the wheat from the chaff (cf. 1 Pet. 4:12-19).
Second-Century Apologists
1. Quadratus (ca. 125)- to emperor Hadrian
2. Epistle
to Diognetus- favorable picture of Christianity
3. Aristides- addressed to Antoninus
Pius (138–161); quotes 4 gospels, Acts, Romans, 1 Peter
4. Justin Martyr (beheaded in
a.
Dialogue with Trypho,
the Jew- OT prophecies are fulfilled in Christ
b.
1 Apology- gives insight into “church
life” of mid-2nd century
c. 2 Apology
5. Tatian (ca. 170)- converted by Justin Martyr; 2 writings:
a. Against the Greeks-
superiority of Christianity over pagan religions and Greek philosophy
b.
Diatessaron-
first harmony of the gospels
6. Athenagoras (ca.
177)- philosopher from
a.
Plea on behalf of Christians- pagan
gods are only human inventions
b.
On the Resurrection of the Dead-
expresses his own personal faith in the resurrection
7. Theophilus (ca.
181)- sent apology to a pagan named Autolycus; 3 parts:
a.
Existence of the true God as opposed to pagan gods
b.
Nature of OT God as opposed to pagan gods
c. Christianity is
the natural unfolding of God’s plan
GNOSTICISM
CHURCH HISTORY
DR. STANGLIN
I. Gnosticism in General
A. Metaphysical
dualism.
1.
plhvrwma/Fullness.
2.
kevnwma/Emptiness. Wrong, meaningless, evil
(including your own body). Thus, it was not the supreme, good God that
created this world, but the Demiurge.
Docetism- Jesus was a phantom.
B. Yearn for
escape/salvation through deeper, esoteric knowledge/insight. Salvation = Freeing the spirit/soul from the body. Then what is the barrier between humanity and
God?
C. Knowledge
given only to insiders; most of humanity lives in ignorance. You
get the knowledge by predetermination, nothing you do.
D. Skeptical
about humanity’s power.
E.
Syncretistic. Judaism, Platonism,
astrology, pagan myths, Christian Scripture.
F. Ethics. 2 extremes, often mentioned, probably
exaggerated.
1.
Asceticism- extreme self-denial (1 Cor. 9:26-27); if physical/material gives
pleasure, then it wins.
2. Libertinism- Immorality; matter doesn’t matter.
*Result is extreme dualism: God of
OT vs. NT, humanity vs. divinity of Jesus, body vs. spirit.
II. Gnosticism of Valentinus
Valentinus started in
A. Cosmogony[1]
In
the pleroma are 30 aeons (powerful
deities), consisting of 15 pairs of male/female. Aeon Paraclete
comes and heals the personified desire, Achamoth, and
their union forms hylic
(material) substances. From Achamoth’s conversion comes the psychic (animal) substance.
Also, pneumatic (spiritual)
substance comes from herself. Finally, from the psychic substance the
Demiurge emanates; he is the befuddled God of the OT, who doesn’t even know
about the pleroma.
Thus, Pleroma à Sophia/Achamoth à 3 substances, including psychic
Demiurge à material world,
including seven heavens and humans.
B. Anthropology
Cf.
Platonic u{lh (savrx), yuchv, pneu`ma.
Even though each human is of all three substances, there are three
classes of humans corresponding to the three substances.
C. Redemption
Achamoth, through the Christ figure, slips some
light/gnosis/insight from pleroma into this world
(unknown to the clueless Demiurge). Only
the elect (pneumatics, Gnostics) could grasp the saving gnosis that Christ brought. Hylic are bad, unsaved, condemned. The psychic (middle) group stands a small
chance of salvation or a different salvation (some systems don’t have this
middle category).
III. Orthodox Problems with Gnosticism[2]
Orthodox taught, contra Gnostics:
A. Identity of
Creator with the one supreme God.
B. Goodness of
the created order.
C. Full
incarnation of Christ.
D. Revelation
in historical events.
E. Redemption
by the blood Christ shed on the cross.
F. Resurrection
of the body.
Nicene/Post-Nicene
Fathers
Greek Writers
1. Eusebius of
Father of church history
Prominent personality at the Council
of Nicaea (325)
2. Athanasius
of
Strong defender of the Nicene faith;
banished 5 times
3. Cyril of
Bishop; catechetical lectures
4. Basil of
Born in
Strongly opposed Arianism
5. Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. 330-90)
Met Basil while studying in
6. Gregory of
Nyssa (ca. 330-94)
Younger brother of Basil
Firmly resisted Arianism
7. John
Chrysostom (347-407)
Reared by his mother as a Christian;
greatest preacher of ancient church
8. Cyril of
Patriarch in
Involved in bitter Christological
controversies (428-44); was a renowned, sharp theologian
Latin
Writers
1. Hilary of
Prominent figure in the Arian
controversy, defending the Nicene faith
12
Books on the Trinity
2. Ambrose of
Appointed as imperial president (political
appointment) of
Strong opponent of Arianism
3. Ambrosiaster (4th cent.)
Anonymous commentator on Pauline
epistles
4. Rufinus (345-410)
Bitter controversy with Jerome over
the orthodoxy of Origen
5. Jerome
(347-420)
Latin Vulgate is his most famous
work; able, but impetuous and unkind
6. Augustine
(354-430)
Baptized by Ambrose
Father of the doctrine of original
sin
7. John Cassian (365-433)
“Semi-pelagian”
who rejected Pelagianism and Augustinianism
8. Vincent of Lerins (5th cent.)
Orthodoxy = what is believed
everywhere, always, by all
A Summary of the General/Ecumenical Councils
1. 325
Arianism
condemned; equality of the Father and Son; oneness of God
Date
set for celebration of Easter
2. 381
Convened by Emperor Theodosius
Against
Macedonius’ denial that the Holy Spirit is one with
the Father; threeness of God
Apollinarianism condemned; Jesus = fully human
3. 431
Controversy over the Greek word theotokos
(God-bearer) (Bettenson 50-51)
Groundwork laid for Mariology
Against Nestorianism,
Jesus = one person; oneness of Christ
4. 451
Against Eutychianism,
Jesus = one person in two natures; twoness of Christ (Bettenson
56-57)
5. 553
Monophysitism
condemned, but not conquered; one person, two natures
6. 680–81
Against Monothelitism
(one will), Jesus possesses two wills (Bettenson
101-02)
7. 787
Against iconoclasm, religious
depictions were endorsed (Bettenson 102-03)
8. 869–70
Photian
controversy
9. 1123 Lateran
I
To end Investiture controversy and
discipline rebels
Indulgence for those participating
in Crusades
Clerical celibacy
10. 1139
Lateran II
Condemned teaching of Arnold of Brescia,
and the practice of simony
11. 1179
Lateran III
Papal elections come only from the college of cardinals with 2/3 majority
Denied Valdenses
permission to preach
12. 1215
Lateran IV
Formal adoption of the inquisition
(cf. Bettenson 146-49)
Defined doctrine of
transubstantiation (cf. Bettenson 162-66)
Jews were excluded from public
office
VOCABULARY ONE
Systematic Theology: The branch of Christian theology that
attempts to present theological thinking and practice in an orderly and coherent
way. It may be based on Scripture and
expressed through doctrines. It implies
an underlying philosophical frame of reference and a method to be followed.
Historical theology:
the study of the views of theologians, and of the Christian church, in
their historical contexts.
Septuagint (LXX): (Lat. “70”) The Greek translation of the
OT, including the so-called Apocryphal books.
Didache: (Gr. “teaching”) The teaching about the
Christian faith conveyed to new converts.
Also the name of the early Christian manual on the
Christian life and church practice –The Didache of the Twelve Apostles (ca. A.D. 50-100).
Doctrine: (Lat. doctrina, from docere, “to
teach”) That which is taught and believed to be true by a church. In various ways churches sanction their
official teachings or doctrines.
Dogma: (Gr. dogma,
“decree,” “an opinion”) A teaching or doctrine which has received an official
church status as truth. In the Roman
Catholic Church it has status as a definitive or infallible church teaching.
Heresy: (Gr. hairesis, “choice”) a view chosen
instead of the official teachings of a church.
Such a view is thus regarded as wrong and potentially dangerous for
faith.
Christology: (From Gr. christos,
“anointed one,” and logos, “study”)
The study of the person and work of Jesus Christ. The church’s understanding
of who Jesus Christ is and what he has done grew and developed through the
centuries. Early church councils
produced Christological statements.
Anthropology, theological:
The doctrine of humanity, which views humans in terms of their
relationships to God. It includes
critical reflection on issues such as the origin, purpose, and destiny of humankind
in light of Christian theological understandings.
Soteriology: (From
Gr. soteria,
“salvation”) The doctrine of salvation.
Ecclesiology:
(From Gr. ekklesia,
“church”) The
study of the church as a biblical and theological topic. The New Testament presents various images of
the church that the early church struggled with as it sought its
self-understanding in light of the gospel and controversies.
Patristics:
The study of the theological work of the early Christian church fathers.
Docetism: (From Gr. dokein, “to seem”) Belief that
Jesus only “seemed” or appeared to have a human body and to be a human
person. The view was found during the
period of the early church among Gnostics, who saw materiality as evil. It was condemned by Ignatius of Antioch (ca.
35–ca. 110), among others.
Eucharist: (Gr. eucharistein, “to give thanks”) A
term for the Lord’s Supper deriving especially from Jesus’ prayer of thanks for
the bread and wine, which he related to his body and blood given for those he
loved.
Metaphysics: A philosophical term for “what is real”
or questions of ultimate reality. This
branch of philosophy is closest to religion, and thus metaphysicians have had
significant influence on theology.
Trinity, doctrine of the:
(From Lat. trinitas,
“triad”) The
Christian church’s belief that Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three Persons
in one Godhead. They share the same
essence or substance (Gr. homoousios). Yet they
are three “persons” (Lat. personae). God is this way within the Godhead and as
known in Christian experience.
VOCABULARY TWO
apologetics: (From Gr. apologia, “defense”) The task of
defending and presenting Christianity sympathetically to nonbelievers.
eschatology: (From Gr. eschatos,
“last”) The doctrine of last things.
Classical theology affirms that Christ will reappear in glory at the end
of history and judge humanity.
Ebionism: (Heb. 'ebyonim,
"poor people" [Matt. 5:3]) Early heresy of a sect of ascetic Jewish
Christians. It stressed obedience to the Mosaic law
and believed Jesus was not divine but became "Son of God" when the
Holy Spirit descended on him at his baptism (Matt. 3:16). The view came to be known as adoptionism.
adoptionism: (From Lat. adoptare, "to adopt") A view of Jesus
Christ that sees him as a human who was adopted or chosen by God to be elevated
into being God's divine Son or a member of the Trinity.
Logos: (Gr. "word,"
"reason") In Greek and Stoic philosophy, the universal power or mind
that gave coherence to the universe. In Christian theology it refers to the
second Person of the Trinity, Jesus Christ (John 1:1), who as the creative
power of God embodied truth and was God incarnate.
Logos Christology: Christological understanding
of Jesus that begins with the divine, eternal Logos and sees Jesus as its
concrete, historical expression.
logos spermatikos: (Gr. "germinal word")
A term used by Justin Martyr (ca. 100–165) to express the view that each human
being is united with God by means of the power of reason and thus may know God
apart from special revelation or could have known God prior to the coming of
Jesus Christ.
Platonism: The views emerging from the
Greek philosopher Plato (428–348 B.C.) that took many forms and that have
influenced Christian theologians. Plato stressed the ideal over empirical
reality and encouraged the use of the mind.
Middle and Neo-platonism: The work of Plotinus (A.D. 205–270) and others who reshaped the
philosophy of Plato (428–348 B.C.). It competed with Christianity and taught
that God relates to the world through various emanations.
monism: (From Gr. monos,
“only”) The philosophical view that all reality is of one type or essence.
dualism: (From Lat. duo,
"two") Any view that is constituted by two basic or fundamental
principles such as spirit and matter or good and evil. Can
also refer to belief in the existence of two gods (ditheism).
Stoicism: A school of Greek philosophy
emerging from the "porch" (Gr. stoa) where philosophers (esp.
Zeno) taught. It was popular in the Roman Empire (Acts 17:18) and emphasized
ethics, harmony with nature, the suppression of emotions, and divine law. Its
vocabulary influenced some New Testament writings of Paul.
Gnosis: (Gr. gnosis, "knowledge") A Greek term that gave rise to
"Gnosticism" in its various forms (1 Tim. 6:20). "Secret
knowledge" could free the "elect'' from the limits of the world
(spirit from matter, light from darkness) and enable them to return home to the
kingdom of light (salvation).
Gnosticism: (Gr. gnosis, “knowledge”) An amorphous
(shapeless—no definite form—without definite character, lacking organization or
unity) movement during the early church period which featured complex views
that focused on the quest for secret knowledge transmitted only to the
“enlightened” and marked by the view that matter is evil. Gnostics denied, among other things, the
humanity of Jesus.
demiurge: (From Gr. demiourgos, "crafter") A Platonic view
of a god as one who crafts the world as a sculptor would shape a piece of stone
or clay. Also used in Gnostic philosophical systems to describe an inferior or
"lesser" being who is creator of the world, but less than a supreme
god.
via negativa: (Lat. "the negative way") A way of speaking about God
that takes human characteristics and describes God in terms of their opposite,
such as: humans are finite; God is infinite.
recapitulation: (Lat. recapitulatio, Gr. anakephalaiosis, "summing
up") A view of early Christian theologians, particularly Irenaeus (ca. 130–ca. 200). God "sums up all things in
Christ" (Eph. 1:10) as the Second Adam who restores the sinful creation by
redeeming all the sin done in Adam.
martyr: (Gr. “witness”) One who testifies at the cost of one’s life, and
whose death then becomes a testimony. A
“martyrology” is a written account of a martyr’s
testimony in death.
VOCABULARY THREE
canon:
(Gr. “rule”) A rule or
standard of faith and practice, whether oral or written.
rule of faith: (Gr., kanon tes pisteos; Lat. regula fidei) In the early church, the developing oral
baptismal formula which defined the teachings of the apostles and which then
became more formal. During the Protestant Reformation the term sometimes
denoted the Scriptures as the source of authority which conveyed Christ.
Vincentian Canon: The prescription of Vincent
of Lerins (d. 445) that Christian orthodoxy may be
understood as quod ubique,
quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum
est ("that which
has been believed everywhere, always, and by all").
creed: (Lat. credo, "I
believe") A formal statement of belief. Christian churches from the early
church period to the present have often constructed summary statements of
Christian beliefs.
creed, baptismal: Earliest Christian summaries of beliefs that were recited as
personal affirmations of faith at the time of baptism.
creed, conciliar: A creed composed by a church or ecumenical council to provide
guidelines to Christian beliefs as they are understood by that body.
Creed, the: A common reference to the
Apostles' Creed as the most widely used creed in the Western church.
traditor: (Lat. "traitor,"
from tradere, "to deliver") Term for one
of those who "turned over" copies of the Christian Scriptures during
a period of intense persecution in North Africa in the reign of Diocletian
(284–305), when it was illegal to possess the Scriptures. Whether such persons
should be readmitted to the church was debated in the Donatist
controversies.
Donatism: North African separatist movement begun by Donatus
(d. 355). He objected to permitting Christians who had "lapsed" in
their faith, by turning over Scriptures when persecuted, to be reinstated in
the church. He did not want "traditores" (traitors)
who were clergy to preside at the Eucharist.
Montanism: The views, associated with Montanus in
the 2nd century, that stressed the outpouring of the Holy Spirit to Montanus through trances that led to his prophetic
utterances about the return of Christ and the establishment of the new Jerusalem, together with an emphasis on asceticism. It
was condemned by the church.
modalism: (Lat. modus,
"form," "mode") A view of the Trinity considered by the
early church as heretical. It was believed that the one God was revealed at
different times in different ways and thus has three manners (modes) of
appearance rather than being one God in three Persons.
syncretism: The blending of concepts, teachings, and symbols from various
religions into another religion.
theodicy: (From Gr. theos, "God," and dike, "justice,"
"right") The justification of a deity's justice and goodness in light
of suffering and evil. The term was coined by the philosopher Gottfried Leibniz
(1646–1716), though the issue has long been explored religiously.
VOCABULARY FOUR
council: A meeting of bishops or other
high-ranking church officials to solve some problem. According to Eastern Orthodoxy, there have
been only seven ecumenical councils, but Roman Catholicism recognizes 21.
homoousios: (Gr. homos, "same," and ousia, "substance") Homoousios,
"of the same substance" was a term used in early church
Christological debates and adopted by church councils of Nicaea (325) and
Constantinople (381) to indicate that Jesus Christ was of the same essence as
God the Father. It contrasts with (Gr.) heteroousios and homoiousios.
homoiousios: (Gr. homoios, "like," and ousia,
"substance") "Of like substance" was a term used in early
Christological debates by Arians and others who perceived Jesus Christ as
"like'' God the Father (homoiousios), but not as being of the "same"
substance as God the Father (homoousios).
Arianism: The teaching of the 4th-century
theologian Arius (c. 256–336).
Athanasianism: Views based on the writings of Athanasius (c. 293–373), bishop of
Alexandria, who vigorously defended the teachings of the Council of Nicaea
(325) that Jesus Christ was eternally divine and fully God ("of the same
substance," Gr. homoousios).
He contended against Arianism.
Nicaea (Nicea),
Council of (325): The Christian church's first ecumenical council, called by the
emperor Constantine to deal with Arianism. Its creed affirmed the divinity of
Jesus Christ as of the "same substance" (Gr. homoousios) with God the Father.
Creed of Nicaea: The Christian creed adopted
at the Council of Nicaea (325). The creed in contemporary common use and called
the "Nicene Creed" is the Niceno-Constantinopolitan
Creed (381). The later creed modified the earlier one and affirmed a view of
Jesus Christ to counter Arianism.
Niceno-Constantinopolitan (Nicene) Creed: The Christian creed adopted
at the Council of Constantinople (381) and commonly referred to as the Nicene
Creed. It is widely used liturgically. The creed is an expansion of the Nicene
Creed (325) with a long section on the Holy Spirit. It combated Arianism and
affirmed the divinity of Jesus Christ.
Athanasian Creed: Fifth-century creed traditionally (and falsely) ascribed to
Athanasius (d. 373) and commonly called the "Quicunque
Vult" (Lat. "Whoever wills") from its
opening words. It expounds orthodox Christian views of the Trinity and the
incarnation, warning that these beliefs are indispensable for salvation.
ontology: (From Gr. on,
"being," and logos,
"study") The philosophical study of being as being. It is thus the
study of the underlying principles which are present in all things that exist
solely by virtue of their existing.
economic Trinity: A view of the Trinity,
propounded by Hippolytus and Tertullian, that stressed the functions ("economies")
or work of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit rather than their eternal being in
relation to each other.
immanent Trinity: The relationships among the three members of the Trinity—Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit—in and with themselves.
Monarchianism, Dynamic: A 2nd- to 3rd-century heresy teaching that
Jesus was only God in the sense of having a power of influence (Gr. dynamis) resting
on his human person.
exegesis: (Gr. “leading out”) Interpretation of the proper meaning of
Scripture (often contrasted with application of Scripture).
VOCABULARY FIVE
incarnation: (From Lat. caro,
“flesh”) The doctrine that in Jesus Christ God became flesh (Jn. 1:1, 14). How God became man and the nature
of this divine man have been much debated over the centuries.
Theotokos: (Gr. "God-bearer") A term used
in the ancient church for Mary as the "mother of God." It was used at
the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) to affirm the deity of Jesus
Christ. Because Jesus had two natures, it was permissible to speak of Mary as
"God-bearer," since the human Jesus was also the divine Jesus.
Apollinarianism: The view of Apollinarius (ca. 310–ca.
390) that Christ did not assume full human nature but that in the incarnation
the divine Logos took the place of the human soul or psyche. It sought to
maintain the unity of the person of Jesus Christ as the one incarnate nature of
the divine Logos.
filioque: (Lat. "and the
Son") Phrase inserted into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan
Creed (381) at the Council of Toledo (589) to say that the Holy Spirit proceeds
from both Father and Son ("double procession") in the Trinity. It was
rejected by the Eastern church (1054) and was part of
the reason for the East-West church schism.
Monophysitism: (From Gr. monos, "only," and physis, "nature") A Christological
view, regarded by the early church as heretical, which taught that Jesus Christ
had only one nature rather than a divine and a human nature that were united in
one person.
Chalcedon, Council of (451):
Fourth
ecumenical council, held at Chalcedon in Asia Minor, which reaffirmed the
Christological statements of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381). It
confessed Jesus Christ as "one person with two natures," human and
divine, which are united but not mixed. This became the orthodox Christian
theological description of the person of Jesus Christ.
Chalcedonian Definition: Teachings about the person of Jesus Christ established by the
Council of Chalcedon (451). It reaffirmed the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople
and rejected the views of the Nestorians and Eutychians
by asserting Jesus Christ as fully God and fully human.
Chalcedonian Christology: Teachings about the person of Christ that accord with the
teachings of the Council of Chalcedon (451).
Nestorianism: Followers of Nestorius (d. 451), who taught in effect that Jesus
Christ was two separate persons as well as possessing two natures. This view
was declared heretical by the Council of Ephesus (431).
Eutychianism: Teaching of Eutyches (ca. 375–454) that
Jesus had only one nature.
Monothelitism: (From Gr. monos, "only," and thelein, "to will") Monothelites held that Jesus Christ had only one will. This
was rejected by the Third Council of Constantinople (680), which asserted that
Christ had two wills, since he had two natures, but that they always acted in
mutual accord.
Corpus Christianum: (Lat. “Christian body”) The medieval ideal of one unified church
and one state working in harmony.
VOCABULARY SIX
apostasy: The act of betrayal—especially, religious betrayal; to fall away
from the faith. The existence of
apostasy has generally raised questions about salvation and assurance.
damnation: The doctrine that some people will not be saved, but will suffer
eternal punishment for their sins.
fall: The doctrine that at some primeval stage of human history a sin
was committed that condemned the whole human race. It was this event that Christ came to
reverse. The doctrine is especially
associated with original sin, which has been very influential in the West, less
so in the East.
image of God: (Lat. imago Dei) The
condition in which humans were created so that they might have a relationship
with God (Gen. 1:26–28). Theologians have varied views of what constitutes the
image theologically and the ways in which it has been affected by the fall into
sin (Gen. 3).
traducianism: (From Lat. tradux, "vinebranch,"
"shoot") A theological view according to which the human soul is
propagated by parents to children. Also called "generationism." It contrasts with
''creationism," the view that God creates each new soul at conception.
creationism: The view that God creates each individual human soul at the point
of conception in the womb (opposed to traducianism). Also the doctrine of God as creator as opposed to pantheism, emanationism, and dualism. Used
popularly to stand opposed to evolution. Thus it is linked with creation
science.
original sin: (Lat. peccatum originalis)
The condition of sinfulness which all persons share and which is caused by the
sinful origins of the race (Adam and Eve) and the fall (Gen. 3). Theologically
it consists of the loss of original righteousness and the distortion of the
image of God.
free will: A loose rendering of (Lat.) liberum arbitrium. The term seeks to describe
the free choice of the will which all persons possess. Theological debates have
arisen over the ways by which and the extent to which sin has affected the
power to choose good over evil, and hence one's "free will."
Pelagianism: The theological views associated with the British monk Pelagius
(ca. 350–ca. 420), who in theological debate with Augustine (354–430) argued
for a totally free human will to do the good and held that divine grace was
bestowed in relation to human merit.
Augustinianism: Views that emerged from the
teachings of Augustine (354–430) about such matters as sin, salvation,
predestination, human freedom, God's grace, and the church. It gives primacy to
the will and love over the intellect and knowledge. It stresses human depravity
and inability for salvation.
Semi-Pelagianism:
A mediating
view of human nature between that of Augustine (354–430) and that of Pelagius
(d. ca. 420).
Semi-Augustinianism: A term used in connection
with the Council of Orange (529), in which the views of Augustine (354–430) on
the nature of grace were upheld against Pelagianism,
yet without endorsement of the Augustinian views of double predestination and
perseverance.
paedobaptism: (From Gr. pais, "child," and baptizein, "to baptize") The practice
of baptizing infants, or infant baptism. It is the practice of Roman
Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and many denominations of Protestantism. Also p(o)edobaptism.
liturgy: Ritual and order of public worship, including in its relation to
sacramental practice.
VOCABULARY SEVEN
icon: (Gr. eikon,
"image") A representation of someone who is venerated, always on a
flat or two-dimensional surface. Icons are used in the decoration of Eastern
churches. They are to point to the eternal mysteries of the gospel.
iconoclasm: (Gr. eikon, "image," and klaein, "to break") The breaking of
physical images in churches. Notably it occurred during the 8th
century in the Eastern church and during the
Reformation period, with the approval of some Protestant reformers.
Schism, Great (1054; also
1378–1417):
The major division between Eastern (Eastern and Greek Orthodox) and Western
(Roman Catholic) Christian churches over, among other things, the Western use
of filioque
("and the Son") in the Nicene Creed. The Western church's division
(1378–1417) under rival claimants to be pope at Avignon and Rome is also
referred to by this term (or the “papal schism”).
scholastic theology: A term for the theology "of the schools" used to
designate the formal methodology of the medieval period marked by a heavy use
of logic, reliance upon philosophical concepts, and linguistic precision. Its
goal is to present a systematic ordering and investigation of Christian truths.
sacramentalism: The theological conviction that God's grace is conveyed through
religious rites designated as sacraments.
sacerdotalism: (From Lat. sacerdos, "priest") The view that with
ordination a person receives the ability to administer the sacraments and thus
to convey God's grace in a priestly manner. Also used to
indicate an excessive domination or reliance on clergy in the life of a church.
mystical theology: A part of spiritual theology that deals with God's hidden and
mysterious work of grace within a community and a person's life. A classic
pattern for mystical theology is the "Threefold Way" of purgation,
illumination, and union with God.
Thomism: Philosophical and
theological views from the work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–74), highly influential
in the Roman Catholic Church. Four phases include periods of defense (13th–15th
centuries), commentaries (1450–1630), disputations, systems (1500–1720), and
revival (1860–1960).
transubstantiation: (Lat. transubstantiatio, "essential change") In Roman
Catholic theology at the consecration in the Mass, the changing of the
substance of bread and wine, by God's power, into the substance of Jesus
Christ's body and blood, which become present while the "accidents"
(appearances of bread and wine) remain.
a posteriori: Latin term referring to thought or knowledge
that is based on, or arises after, experience.
a priori: Latin term referring to thought or knowledge
arising from a concept or principle that precedes empirical verification, or
that occurs independently of experience.
ontological argument: One of the classical
arguments for the existence of God based on the powers of reason. As developed
by Anselm (1033–1109), it considers God to be "that than which nothing
greater can be conceived." As such, God must "exist" because to
lack existence would be to be defective.
nominal Christian: A term for one who, while
officially affiliated with or a member of a church, does not appear to take the
demands of Christian discipleship seriously.
nominalism: (Lat. nominalis, "belonging to a name") A medieval philosophical view
that universal ideas are only names. Only specific, individual things exist.
Abstract ideas are merely labels used by the mind. It opposed
"realism" and was taught by William of Occam (c. 1285–c. 1349).
realism: (From Lat. res,
"thing") The view that objects of knowledge truly exist apart from
our knowledge of them. In medieval philosophy, the view that universals have an independence apart from the mind that perceives them. It
contrasts with nominalism.
sanctification: The process of being made (more) holy. It follows justification as the experience of
the Christian life.
VOCABULARY EIGHT
Reformed: A term for churches and the
theological tradition that emerged from the work of John Calvin (1509–64) and
other reformers such as Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531)
and Heinrich Bullinger (1504–75), in contrast to the
Lutheran Reformation and to Anabaptism.
Radical Reformation: The "left" or
"third" wing of the Protestant Reformation that describes those who sought
a radical approach, a return to early Christian precedents for the nature and
government of the church, rejecting national or state churches. Among others it
included Anabaptists such as the Mennonites and the Amish.
Magisterial Reformation: A term to refer to the
pattern by which churches were established and supported by civil authority. It
contrasts with the "Radical Reformation," in which church and state
were completely separated.
Counter-Reformation/Catholic
Reformation: The
period of church reform instituted
by Roman Catholicism as a reaction to the Protestant Reformation. It extended
from the early 16th to the mid-17th century and set the
course for Catholic theology and practice until Vatican II Council (1962–65).
indulgences: (Lat. indulgere, "to be indulgent,"
"grant a favor") In Roman Catholic theology, a pardon for temporal
punishments that remain due for sin after repentance and the forgiveness of
guilt. The issue was highly disputed by Martin Luther (1483–1546) during the
Protestant Reformation.
Anabaptists: (From Gr. ana, "again," and baptein, "to dip in water") Those who advocated rebaptism in certain instances. Most
prominently, 16th-century reformers who renounced infant baptism,
stressed the literal reading of Scripture, and supported the separation of
church and state.
justification by faith
(Roman Catholicism): (Lat. iustificare, "to justify") In Roman
Catholic theology, God's making persons just or righteous and thus setting them
in harmony with God through their participation in the sacraments of the Roman
Catholic Church and by the gift of the Holy Spirit which is the new life
principle of grace, expressed through love.
justification by faith
(Protestantism): The theological principle, emphasized in Protestantism, that
salvation comes to an individual by God's grace through faith so that to be
"declared righteous," or "justified," or "saved"
is on the (sole) basis of one's faith in Jesus Christ apart from any works of
merit (Rom. 1:17; 3:28; 5:1).
sola fide: (Lat. "by faith alone") A slogan of the Protestant
Reformation used by Martin Luther (1483–1546) on the basis of Rom. 3:28 to
indicate that justification of the sinner (salvation) comes only to those who
have faith and is not achieved through any "good works."
sola gratia: (Lat. "by grace
alone") A slogan of the Protestant Reformation indicating that the basis
for Christian salvation is solely the grace of God and not any human
achievement. It is God's initiative and action which is the agent of salvation.
sola Scriptura: (Lat. "Scripture
alone") A slogan of the Protestant Reformation indicating that the
church's authority is only the Holy Scriptures and not ecclesiastical
traditions or human opinions. This was called the "formal principle"
of the Reformation, or the "Scripture principle."
election: (Gr. ekloge,
Lat. electio, "a choice") God's choosing
of a people to enjoy the benefits of salvation and to carry out God's purposes
in the world (1 Thess. 1:4; 2 Peter 1:10). This doctrine has been of particular
importance in Reformed theology.
predestination: (Lat. praedestinatio)
God's actions in willing something to a specific result. It is also called
foreordination. Some Christian theologians, particularly in the Reformed tradition,
have seen it as indicating God's eternal decree by which all creatures are
foreordained to eternal life or death. It may also be used synonymously with
"election" and indicates God's gracious initiation of salvation for
those who believe in Jesus Christ.
CHURCH HISTORY—STUDY GUIDE
EXAM 4 (Final)
Know Vocabulary
1-7 (cumulative).
Medieval
Church and State
Which of the
Germanic tribes became the dominant force in
What is the
significance of Dec. 25, 800?
When did the
split between the eastern and western church occur?
Identify:
Pepin the Short
Charlemagne
Donation of
Crusades
What were the
goals of the Crusades?
Be able to
summarize the particular crusades discussed in class.
Identify:
Urban II
Peter the
Hermit
Age of
Scholasticism
What is
scholasticism, and how has it been portrayed?
Know the major
scholastic theologians along with their distinctive teachings.
Monasticism
Know and
discuss the founder of Western monasticism.
Identify:
monasticism
Mendicant
orders